Rwanda has taken many steps to improve their situation, but the country is still scarred. The genocide affected and continues to affect most everyone in and surrounding the country, including: survivors, the government, returning refugees, killers, and even surrounding countries such as Congo.
Many survivors are facing severe poverty because everything they had was destroyed and many of the people in their lives were killed. They also face serious health problems such as HIV/AIDS. Some of the people in the Tutsi minority are still attacked by the Hutus, and fear lives in almost all of them. It is difficult to rebuild your life next to the person who recently tried to kill you.
The post-genocide government has a policy of "unity and reconciliation." They have made many advances, including Gacaca, a form of local justice inspired by tradition, which was created to handle the hundreds of thousands of crimes during the genocide. (Many of the Hutus have fled to neighboring countries to avoid the consequences of their actions). The government has also given women a little bit of power through legal reforms. The government has also promoted participation in the government which has increased economic growth and stability; they have also adopted a new constitution. However, most of the power remains in the hands of former leaders of the Tutsi-dominated RPF and freedom of speech is limited. The first post-genocide elections were in August 2003. Former RPF general Paul Kagame was elected to serve a seven year presidential term.
Sources:
http://www.ushmm.org/conscience/alert/rwanda/contents/02-current/
Friday, October 31, 2008
Tuesday, October 21, 2008
Response to Mr. Cavellier's Comment on the Background Information
Around the 14 century, the Tutsies migrated to Rwanda from Ethiopia because they were cattle-herding warriors and therefore traveled and migrated to follow their cattle and give them the best place to live. There is evidence that the Hutus were pastoral, not nomadic, prior to the arrival of the Tutsies. Many Tutsies stayed in Rwanda once they arrived and changed their way of life from cattle-herding to farming. The Tutsies did not come into Rwanda all at once, it was a gradual migration that was mostly peaceful. The Tutsies used their cattle ownership (because cattle are a symbol of power and wealth) and advanced fighting skills to gain economic, political, and social control over the Hutus. Soon after the Tutsies settled in Rwanda, a Tutsi king came into power. Eventually, land ownership was taken away from the Hutus and given to the Tutsi king, called the Mwami.
Although colonizing countries saw the Tutsi people as superior, some of the Tutsies do not believe this. Yes, they accepted the privileges and superior treatment given to them but some of them did not view the Hutus as inferior. However, some Tutsies did see themselves as superior and this caused conflict between the two groups. I do not think you can get an exact number on how many people felt or believed they were superior to those who did not because even if you took a poll (or counted in some way) many people would most likely not give the answer they truly believed.
Yes, I think the Hutu and Tutsi people are similar to the Civil War slaves in America. The colonists (which would correlate with the slave owners in the Civil War) saw the Tutsies were taller, lighter skinned, and had bigger skulls and therefore gave them positions of power and more privileges than the Hutus. The Tutsies are similar to the light skinned slaves who were house slaves and were given better jobs. The Hutus are like the dark skinned slaves who had to work on the field and perform the difficult jobs.
Sources:
http://www.africa.upenn.edu/NEH/rwhistory.htm
http://www.orvillejenkins.com/peoples/tutsiandhutu.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origins_of_Tutsi_and_Hutu
Although colonizing countries saw the Tutsi people as superior, some of the Tutsies do not believe this. Yes, they accepted the privileges and superior treatment given to them but some of them did not view the Hutus as inferior. However, some Tutsies did see themselves as superior and this caused conflict between the two groups. I do not think you can get an exact number on how many people felt or believed they were superior to those who did not because even if you took a poll (or counted in some way) many people would most likely not give the answer they truly believed.
Yes, I think the Hutu and Tutsi people are similar to the Civil War slaves in America. The colonists (which would correlate with the slave owners in the Civil War) saw the Tutsies were taller, lighter skinned, and had bigger skulls and therefore gave them positions of power and more privileges than the Hutus. The Tutsies are similar to the light skinned slaves who were house slaves and were given better jobs. The Hutus are like the dark skinned slaves who had to work on the field and perform the difficult jobs.
Sources:
http://www.africa.upenn.edu/NEH/rwhistory.htm
http://www.orvillejenkins.com/peoples/tutsiandhutu.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origins_of_Tutsi_and_Hutu
Monday, October 20, 2008
Friday, October 17, 2008
United States Refugee Resettlement Program and Mopendo International
The United States Refugee Resettlement Program was actualized under the power of Title IV, Chapter 2 of the Immigration and Nationality Act. The Refugee Assistance Extension Act of 1986 was signed into law in November 1986. This program provides social services, cash, and medical assistance to eligible refugees and their families through sub-grant arrangements with community-based nonprofit organizations. This program also has programs that focus on employment, job placement, English language training, and support services. This program has helped change the lives of many refugees that have come from many different countries and have experienced a variety of horrific things in their lifetime. One person who has been helped by the United States Refugee Resettlement Program and who has been a hero for many people, including Susan Sarandon, is Rose Mapendo. 
Mapendo is a Tutsi woman who, along with her husband and seven children, were put in a Congolese death camp in 1998. The people in this camp were starved, tortured, and systematically killed because of their ethnicity. During her time in the camp, she was pregnant with twins and had to endure these hardships and prepare herself and her babies for childbirth. Her husband died in the camp so she did not have his strength or support during this time. Her twins did not survive the birth but she did and she says, "That is the day I survived. Something came as a joy in my heart; I don't fear. At the time I gave birth, I said, 'God, I'm alive.'" This woman is uniquely amazing not only for surviving in the camp, but what she did while she was there and what she did after. After giving birth to her twins, in an act of forgiveness she named them after the commanders charged to kill her family. She declares that this was "the first in...a miraculous chain of events that ultimately resulted in her family's rescue and resettlement in Phoenix, Arizona through the United States Refugee Resettlement Program in 2000. Mapendo is now a U.S. citizen and has learned to speak and write English. Her life has changed due to the United States Refugee Resettlement Program, for she says "When I came here, I found out there was life. I never thought I could be like who I am today. Resettlement saved my life."
However, Mapendo's story does not end with this. She made a decision to help others the way she had been helped, and in 2005, along with Sasha Chanoff, she founded Mapendo International. Chanoff is the contractor who found and rescued a group of 32 refugees in need (including Mapendo and her children) while on a government relief program. This organization works with the U.S. Department of State and the United Nations to identify and help African refugees in danger. Mapendo International has helped over 2,000 refugees into the United States Refugee Resettlement Program and has given over 3,000 people medical care through the organization's health clinic in Kenya.
Mapendo International Mission Statement:
"Mapendo International works to fill the critical and unmet needs of people affected by war and conflict who have fallen through the net of humanitarian assistance. This commitment is expressed through targeting individuals, families and groups of people overlooked by existing aid programs. Mapendo strives to alleviate human suffering, to protect life and health, and to raise awareness for these vulnerable people."
(Picture above: Rose Mapendo with her seven children; Picture below: Rose Mapendo with Susan Sarandon)
Sources:
Thursday, October 16, 2008
Kangura
During the Habyarimana presidency, the media created four newspapers and one radio station (Radio Rwanda). One of the periodicals, called Kanguka ("wake up"), was first distributed in 1987 and was owned by a Tutsi and edited by a Hutu. In its pages it declared that Rwandan poverty and social imbalance is not a result of Tutsi domination (as the Hutus believe), but of the government's economic policy and its network of northern Rwandan clan loyalties. The paper was very popular but it threatened the akazu (anti-Tutsi Hutus) power. The akazu had a strong hold on national affairs and did not want to share any of their power with the Tutsies. In order to combat this influential paper, the Hutus created a paper called Kangura, which means "wake them up." The name is extremely similar and so was the layout style and tone of the paper. The Hutus did this to confuse readers and to make readers dislike, misunderstand, and criticize the Tutsi people and the RPF.
Hassan Ngeze, a correspondent for the Kanguka, was hired as the editor for Kangura. This was also confusing for the readers because he transferred over from one paper to the other. Ngeze was clever; he used caricatures and political cartoons as visuals to make sure illiterate and poorly educated Rwandans were influenced by the anti-Tutsi articles. He often used crude and shocking pictures such as Tutsi men castrating Hutu and Tutsi women giving sexual favors for international support of their sinful cause. Another tactic Ngeze and his writers used to ingrain anti-Tutsi ideas was using the name "inyenzi" instead of Tutsi. In Kinyarwanda, inyenzi means "cockroach." This insect usually has negative connotations, and is often unwanted in the place which it lives but they are difficult to eliminate. Another name used for the Tutsies was "inkotanyi," which is a historical term for warrior. This term was originally given for the RPF, but the newspaper used it in a negative way. The paper portrayed all of the RPF soldiers as armed against the Hutu people. This sent fear and distrust into the hearts of the Hutus because they were unarmed and one article threatened that "85% of the Tutsi are RPF collaborators 'who are working night and day' to overthrow security in Rwanda. Faced with such a threat the Hutu have no choice but to act in self-defense." Another issue in 1994 proclaimed that the UN peacekeepers were plotting with the RPF to assassinate the president and take over Rwanda. When the president's plane was shot down in April 1994, many Hutu panicked. Many of them believed what the media was feeding them. (Now researchers are almost positive that the Hutus shot down the plane; they are positive that the UN peacekeepers and RPF were not behind the plot.) Kangura is another example that shows the Rwanda genocide was strategically and carefully planned in order to be as effective as possible. This newspaper put doubt, fear, the feeling of the need for self-defense, and anger into the hearts and minds of the Hutu people. This caused them to commit horrific, irrational, and unsympathetic crimes.
Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akazu
Ten Commandments of the Hutu
In December 1990 the Hutu paper Kangura ("Wake others up!") published its "Ten Commandments" of the Hutu." These "commandments" were similar to Hitler's Nuremberg Laws and the Bosnian Serbs' 1992 edicts. This newspaper article is another piece of evidence that proves that the genocide was caused by a deep hatred and resentment toward the Tutsi people. Although often times the two groups of people were neighbors and aquaintences, spoke the same language, served the same God, shared the same culture, they did not view eachother as equal. The "Ten Commandments of the Hutu" is just one example that depicts this attitude.
2.Every Hutu must know that our Hutu daughters are more worthy and more conscientious as women, as wives and as mothers. Aren’t they lovely, excellent secretaries, and more honest!
3.Hutu women, be vigilant and make sure that your husbands, brothers and sons see reason.
4. All Hutus must know that all Tutsis are dishonest in business. Their only goal is ethnic superiority. We have learned this by experience from experience. In consequence, any Hutu is a traitor who: Forms a business alliance with a Tutsi; Invests his own funds or public funds in a Tutsi enterprise; Borrows money from or loans money to a Tusti; Grants favors to Tutsis (import licenses, bank loans, land for construction, public markets...)
5. Strategic positions such as politics, administration, economics, the military and security must be restricted to the Hutu.
6. A Hutu majority must prevail throughout the educational system (pupils, scholars, teachers).
7. The Rwandan Army must be exclusively Hutu. The war of October 1990 has taught us that. No soldier may marry a Tutsi woman.
8. Hutu must stop taking pity on the Tutsi.
9. Hutu wherever they be must stand united, in solidarity, and concerned with the fate of their Hutu brothers. Hutu within and without Rwanda must constantly search for friends and allies to the Hutu Cause, beginning with their Bantu brothers. Hutu must constantly counter Tutsi propaganda. Hutu must stand firm and vigilant against their common enemy: the Tutsi.
10. The Social Revolution of 1959, the Referendum of 1961 and the Hutu Ideology must be taught to Hutu of every age. Every Hutu must spread the word wherever he goes. Any Hutu who persecutes his brother Hutu for spreading and teaching this ideology is a traitor.
Sources:
"A Problem From Hell" (Pages 338-339)
http://www.trumanwebdesign.com/~catalina/commandments.htm
Ten Commandments of the Hutu
1. Every Hutu must know that the Tutsi woman, wherever she may be, is working for the Tutsi ethnic cause. In consequence, any Hutu is a traitor who: Acquires a Tutsi wife; Acquires a Tutsi concubine; Acquires a Tutsi secretary or protégée.2.Every Hutu must know that our Hutu daughters are more worthy and more conscientious as women, as wives and as mothers. Aren’t they lovely, excellent secretaries, and more honest!
3.Hutu women, be vigilant and make sure that your husbands, brothers and sons see reason.
4. All Hutus must know that all Tutsis are dishonest in business. Their only goal is ethnic superiority. We have learned this by experience from experience. In consequence, any Hutu is a traitor who: Forms a business alliance with a Tutsi; Invests his own funds or public funds in a Tutsi enterprise; Borrows money from or loans money to a Tusti; Grants favors to Tutsis (import licenses, bank loans, land for construction, public markets...)
5. Strategic positions such as politics, administration, economics, the military and security must be restricted to the Hutu.
6. A Hutu majority must prevail throughout the educational system (pupils, scholars, teachers).
7. The Rwandan Army must be exclusively Hutu. The war of October 1990 has taught us that. No soldier may marry a Tutsi woman.
8. Hutu must stop taking pity on the Tutsi.
9. Hutu wherever they be must stand united, in solidarity, and concerned with the fate of their Hutu brothers. Hutu within and without Rwanda must constantly search for friends and allies to the Hutu Cause, beginning with their Bantu brothers. Hutu must constantly counter Tutsi propaganda. Hutu must stand firm and vigilant against their common enemy: the Tutsi.
10. The Social Revolution of 1959, the Referendum of 1961 and the Hutu Ideology must be taught to Hutu of every age. Every Hutu must spread the word wherever he goes. Any Hutu who persecutes his brother Hutu for spreading and teaching this ideology is a traitor.
Sources:
"A Problem From Hell" (Pages 338-339)
http://www.trumanwebdesign.com/~catalina/commandments.htm
Monday, October 13, 2008
A Uniquely Horrific Genocide
The Rwandan genocide lasted 100 days and over 800,000 people were killed. This was one of the most effective genocides in all of history. What made this massacre uniquely horrific was that it was neighbor killing neighbor and sometimes friend killing friend. I cannot imagine what this would be like. The Hutu extremists not only killed the Tutsies, they did it in the most inhumane ways imaginable. In the cities and most populated areas machetes, clubs, and grenades were used. In the more rural areas, silverware, screwdrivers, and other weapons were used as well. Many people were chopped to pieces and left to die. Since the Hutus and Tutsies were often intermingled, many families were split. In Jean Hatzfeld's book, Life Laid Bare: The Survivors in Rwanda Speak, one boy tells of a Hutu husband who killed his Hutu wife for helping a Tutsi boy (14).
Women and children were literally hacked to pieces in front of churches, in their houses, and in marshes (where they tried to escape). Many people tried to take refuge in the churches but the Hutus would throw grenades inside and blow the people up. It is appalling that people were massacred inside or infront of churches because these were seen as holy places or places of refuge. The Hutus were so eager and focused on exterminating the Tutsies that they violated places of refuge and killed thousands of people there.
Women and children were literally hacked to pieces in front of churches, in their houses, and in marshes (where they tried to escape). Many people tried to take refuge in the churches but the Hutus would throw grenades inside and blow the people up. It is appalling that people were massacred inside or infront of churches because these were seen as holy places or places of refuge. The Hutus were so eager and focused on exterminating the Tutsies that they violated places of refuge and killed thousands of people there.
(Picture below: Tutsi survivor; Picture above: bones collected from massacred Tutsies)
Each survivor has a different way of coping with their situation. Some Tutsies say, as quoted in the book Life Laid Bare: The Survivors in Rwanda Speak, that "'life has broken down,' whereas for others, it has 'stopped,' and still others say it 'absolutely must go on'" (Hatzfeld 4). Many of these people do not know who to trust or if they will ever trust again. Who can blame them? For some of them, their lives have become lonely, some live in constant fear, some live in an emptiness, and some live with a determination to live on and honor the ones who died. In Life Laid Bare: The Survivors in Rwanda Speak, a young boy named Cassius Niyonsaba was one of these determined individuals. When he visits the church where his family was killed he remembers his loved ones and is at peace and decides to push on. Characters like this boy inspire me to make a difference and to help those in need.
Sources:
A Problem From Hell: America and the Age of Genocide
Life Laid Bar: The Survivors in Rwanda Speak
http://www.themwambafamilyfoundation.org/mediac/400_0/media/genocide_rwanda11.jpg
http://www.hrw.org/photos/2003/rwanda/images/1.jpg
http://www.usafricaonline.com/genocide.rwanda11.jpg
http://lh6.ggpht.com/_Oxld2yxa-pM/RxfNBz1HCnI/AAAAAAAAE9I/s_1HDxXcv1I/P1010249.JPG
Each survivor has a different way of coping with their situation. Some Tutsies say, as quoted in the book Life Laid Bare: The Survivors in Rwanda Speak, that "'life has broken down,' whereas for others, it has 'stopped,' and still others say it 'absolutely must go on'" (Hatzfeld 4). Many of these people do not know who to trust or if they will ever trust again. Who can blame them? For some of them, their lives have become lonely, some live in constant fear, some live in an emptiness, and some live with a determination to live on and honor the ones who died. In Life Laid Bare: The Survivors in Rwanda Speak, a young boy named Cassius Niyonsaba was one of these determined individuals. When he visits the church where his family was killed he remembers his loved ones and is at peace and decides to push on. Characters like this boy inspire me to make a difference and to help those in need.
Sources:
A Problem From Hell: America and the Age of Genocide
Life Laid Bar: The Survivors in Rwanda Speak
http://www.themwambafamilyfoundation.org/mediac/400_0/media/genocide_rwanda11.jpg
http://www.hrw.org/photos/2003/rwanda/images/1.jpg
http://www.usafricaonline.com/genocide.rwanda11.jpg
http://lh6.ggpht.com/_Oxld2yxa-pM/RxfNBz1HCnI/AAAAAAAAE9I/s_1HDxXcv1I/P1010249.JPG
The Immediate Causes of the Genocide
The Hutu and Tutsi people lived together peacefully before being colonized (first by Germany and then by Belgium, see previous blogs for more information). During colonization, the Germans and the Belgians labeled the Tutsi people as the "superior" group, even though the country Hutus made up 85% of the country and the Tutsi only accounted for 14%. This led to many privileges for the Tutsies (including political power) and many disadvantages for the Hutu, which caused resentment that, became more and more engrained into the hearts and lives of the Hutu people. The Europeans introduced modern warfare and the European missionaries taught the Hutus to view themselves as oppressed. Therefore, in 1956 with European influence guiding them, the Hutus banned together and rebelled against the Tutsies. Over 100,000 lives were lost in the process, but by 1956 the Hutu had overthrown the Tutsi leaders. This reversed the traditional roles in the Rwandan society; the Tutsies were oppressed and stripped of power, while the Hutus enjoyed the privilege of power that they had been thirsting for. The Hutus treated the Tutsies terribly and as a result over 200,000 Tutsi fled from the country. While these refugees were living in neighboring countries they formed the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF). After receiving complete independence from Belgium in 1962, the inexperienced Hutus had to deal with internal conflicts. Tension was growing among the leaders and throughout the country, and the more the Hutus suppressed the Tutsies, the more the Tutsi determination grew. In 1990 the RPF saw that the Hutu government was very weak and the RPF attacked the Hutus and a civil war began.
In 1993, a ceasefire was created, helped by the UN. A multiparty constitution was created as well (both Hutus and Tutsies had political power). The Hutus were strongly opposed to the Tutsies having any power. Therefore, the Hutus planned the "Final Solution." The signal to start the genocide was given on April 6, 1994 when the plane carrying the Rwandan president, Juvenal Habyarimana, and the Burundi president, Cyprian Ntayamira, was shot down from rocket fire (the source is unknown) near Kigali. This was the event that kick started the genocide. This is extremely ironic because the two presidents were coming back from a meeting of east and central African leaders in Tanzania in which they discussed and brainstormed different ways to end ethnic violence in Burundi and Rwanda.
In 1993, a ceasefire was created, helped by the UN. A multiparty constitution was created as well (both Hutus and Tutsies had political power). The Hutus were strongly opposed to the Tutsies having any power. Therefore, the Hutus planned the "Final Solution." The signal to start the genocide was given on April 6, 1994 when the plane carrying the Rwandan president, Juvenal Habyarimana, and the Burundi president, Cyprian Ntayamira, was shot down from rocket fire (the source is unknown) near Kigali. This was the event that kick started the genocide. This is extremely ironic because the two presidents were coming back from a meeting of east and central African leaders in Tanzania in which they discussed and brainstormed different ways to end ethnic violence in Burundi and Rwanda.
(Left Picture: Burundi president, Cyprian Ntayamira; Right Picture: Rwandan president, Juvenal Habyarimana)
Sources:
http://www.ppu.org.uk/genocide/g_rwanda.html
http://www.unitedhumanrights.org/Genocide/genocide_in_rwanda.htm
A Problem From Hell: America and the Age of Genocide (book)
http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/6/newsid_2472000/2472195.stm
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/56/Ntaryamira.jpg/180px-Ntaryamira.jpg
http://news.bbc.co.uk/olmedia/660000/images/_664863_habya150.jpg
http://www.ppu.org.uk/genocide/g_rwanda.html
http://www.unitedhumanrights.org/Genocide/genocide_in_rwanda.htm
A Problem From Hell: America and the Age of Genocide (book)
http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/6/newsid_2472000/2472195.stm
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/56/Ntaryamira.jpg/180px-Ntaryamira.jpg
http://news.bbc.co.uk/olmedia/660000/images/_664863_habya150.jpg
Specific, Not Spontaneous
(Picture above: rows of skulls of Tutsi victims)
After the plane was fired down on April 6, 1994, "many of the early Tutsi victims found themselves specifically, not spontaneously pursued" ( Power 333). Lists of people to be killed were created ahead of time. Names, addresses, and license plate numbers of Tutsies and moderate Hutus were announced on the Radio Mille Collines broadcasts. Many people tried, mostly in vain, to pay to get their names removed from the list. The Hutus started with the people that had the most political power. I find it very interesting but appalling that at the beginning of the genocide, the killers would know how many people were in the family they were killing, what their names were, and the adults' occupations.
On the morning of April 7 assisinations began of political figures that did not completely support President Habyarimana's dictatorship. These victims were not limited to Tutsies. One of the first people killed was Prime Minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana, who was a moderate Hutu, along with her husband and children. Her death was significant because she was one of the prominent supporters of peace-keeping and the sharing of political power between the Hutu and Tutsies. Right before she was killed, five Ghanian and ten Belgian peace-keepers came to bring her to Radio Rwanda, where she was going to announce an emergency plea for calm. Uwilingiyimana and her family were murdered, the five Ghanians were not harmed, but the ten Belgians soldiers were killed too. This is also significant. These soldiers were in Rwanda to help enforce the cease-fire and keep the peace between the Hutus and Tutsies. These soldiers were taken by the Hutu extremists, called interahamwe, and were literally cut to pieces with machetes. The Belgian soldiers did not use their guns or try to fight back in any way; they died trying to bring peace. This angered the UN and the Belgian government because these men were slaughtered and they did not even try to defend themselves (except with words). The Hutu forces killed the ten Belgians for a strategic reason: to keep the United States out of the conflict. The strategy worked. The United States saw the brutal deaths of the Belgians and it reminded many of the US leaders of situation in Somalia a few years earlier and they did not want this. The United States pulled out the small amount of help they had in Rwanda and did not intervene until much later in the genocide.
(Picture above: Rwandan nurse holding Tutsi body)
Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwandan_Genocide
A Problem from Hell: America and the Age of Genocide
Life Laid Bare: The Survivors in Rwanda Speak
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwandan_Genocide
http://www.burningcross.net/inquisition/missionaries/rwanda-dead.JPG
Friday, October 10, 2008
Rwandan Patriotic Front
In 1959 there was a series of riots due to a build up in resentment between the Hutus and Tutsies. Many Tutsies fled from Rwanda to neighboring countries including Tanzania, Burundi, and Uganda. Many of these refugees stayed in these countries and started families here. A few years before the genocide, the president of Rwanda, Juvenal Habyarimana, was losing popularity. During this time, the refugees in Uganda were forming the Rwandan Patriotic Front. Most Tutsies and moderate Hutus supported this group. The goal of the RPF was to overthrow President Habyarimana and secure their right and safety for their return to their homeland. Habyarimana found this out and used this information to gain back the support of the Hutus. The Tutsies inside the Rwandan borders were also accused of being RPF collaborators.
In August 1993, a peace accord was signed between Habyarimana and the RPF, but there still continued to be tension. When the president's plane was shot down in April 1994, just eight months after signing the peace agreement, the Hutus exploded with acts of violence. Some people believed the Hutus shot down the presidential plane and some people believe the RPF shot down the plane. The day after the plane was shot down, the RPF renewed their attack on the government forces. All of the UN efforts to negotiate a ceasefire were done without success.
In July, the RPF captured Kigali (the capital of Rwanda) and this ended the genocide; the government collapsed and the RPF announced a ceasefire. After seeing that the RPF was victorious, over two million Hutus have fled the country and moved to the Democratic Republic of Congo. Many of the Hutus that left Rwanda were the ones who had taken a part in the mass murdering of the Tutsi people. Although a ceasefire was declared, after the genocide the RPF soldiers killed many unarmed civilians. Many of these people were thought to be part of the interahamwe (Hutu killers), but the RPF also killed many women and children and also families or connections with the genocidal Hutu killers. The RPF is known for having clear commands and control within their army, and since these killings happened over a widespread area for a long period of time, the commanding officers, such as General Paul Kagame, must have known what was happening. The officers were probably in support of these actions.
On July 19, 2004, a new multi-ethnic government was created and it gave all refugees a safe return to Rwanda. This government was led by Pasteur Bizimungu, a Hutu, who was elected president.
On a personal note:
Although there was tension between Habyarimana and the RPF, I do not think the RPF shot down President Habyarimana's plane. I think the Hutus shot down the plane but used the resentment between the RPF and the president to make it seem like the RPF had committed the crime and therefore made many of the Hutu people panic because the media had been telling them that the Tutsies were out to hurt the Hutus. However, the Hutus had been planning a genocide and I think the shooting of the plane was an event that some Hutu fighters used to justify their killings.
(Picture above: RPF soldiers; Picture below: General Paul Kagame)
Sources:
US involvement
The United States, lead by President Bill Clinton, could have had a significant influence on the Rwanda genocide in 1994, but they chose to stay out of the situation. When the UN, specifically Canadian Major General Romeo Dallaire, warned the pentagon about this potential genocide they did not add it to their list of priorities. When James Woods of the Defense Department's African affairs bureau suggested this, his bosses basically told him, "Look, if something happens in Rwanda-Burundi, we don't care. Take if off the list. U.S. natinal interest is not involved and we can't put all these silly humanitarian issues on lists...Just make it go away" (Power 342). As you can see, either the US did not think Rwanda was significant in the first place or they wanted to ignore the issue in order to avoid another "Somalia situation." When the realization set in that something disastrous and catastrophic was happening in a country no bigger than the size of Maryland, the US still refused to step in and help.The United States were given extensive warnings (all of which they ignored) about a planned massacre. The U.S. recieved these pieces of information prior to the plane crash on April 6. The US also denied Belgian requests to reinforce the peacekeeping mission in Rwanda. When the massacres began, the Clinton administration did not send troops to Rwanda to try to stop the killing and they also refused to help in many other ways as well. President Clinton did not organize any meetings of his senior foreign policy advisers to talk about U.S. options for helping Rwanda and creating peace. The president's top advisers rarely spoke out against the genocide and the US did not use its technical assets to jam the Rwandan hate radio that would issue names of the people who were to be killed next and would sent out anti-Tutsi "information." Also, the U.S. did not try to use their influence to have the Rwandan government's ambassador (who was in support of the genocide) to be removed from his position of power in the United Nations. The U.S. also withdrew their UN peacekeepers from Rwanda and would not authorize the deployment of UN reinforcements. The people and the Clinton administration did not want to enter Rwanda because of the reaction of U.S. involvement in Somalia, which was still fresh in their minds.
The United States Army went into Somalia from August 1992 to March 1994 in order to relieve the Somalian people of starvation. The U.S. troops were slowly dragged into interclan power struggles and "nation building" missions that were ambiguous and drawn out. Many American soldiers were killed in this intervention and it took much longer to pull the troops out of Somalia than initially expected.
I think that the blame of the killing 800,000 Tutsies in 100 day partly falls on the rest of the world because other countries did not intervene and help the people getting massacred. Most of the killings were primarily done with machetes (along with knives, spears, masu (big clubs with nails sticking out of them), screwdrivers, hammers, and bicycle handlebars). Another country, such as the U.S., Belgium, Germany, or France could have easily stopped this killing because they would have used automatic weapons (firearms); a bullet can easily defeat a machete.
(All of the pictures above are photos of murdered Tutsi people. These killings and the death depicted in these photos could have been prevented if another country would have had the courage and decency to step in and do something about the situation in Rwanda).
Sources:
http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/Somalia/Somalia.htm
A Problem From Hell: America and the Age of Genocide
http://www.interet-general.info/IMG/Rwanda-Genocide-1994-1.jpg
http://images.teamsugar.com/files/upl1/6/62144/15_2008/1000232.jpg
http://k53.pbase.com/v3/76/348376/2/50507510.MarksRwandaFile0215.jpg
Thursday, October 9, 2008
Jean Hatzfeld
I am reading two books on Rwanda, Life Laid Bare: The Survivors in Rwanda Speak and Machete Season: The Killers in Rwanda Speak. Both of these books, each revealing a different side of the Rwandan genocide, were written by Jean Hatzfeld.Jean Hatzfeld has written many books and articles including the two books mentioned above, The Antelope's Strategy: Living in Rwanda After the Genocide, Into the Quick Life: The Rwandan Genocide-The Survivors Speak, History of Ancient Greece, Living Labour: Life on the Line at Peugeot France, A Time for Machetes, and many more. He has also written many magazine and newspaper articles. His works of literature have been translated from French into many different languages, including English and German. He has been an international reporter for Liberation since 1973 but he has also written for L'Autre Journal, Geo, Rolling Stones, and Autrement. He has also directed four TV documentaries.
Hatzfeld started his career traveling through Eastern Europe as a special correspondent and war reporter. He covered many major events including the beginning of Solidarnosc (a Polish non-governmental trade union) to the fall of the Berlin Wall. He also wrote about the "Velvet Revolution" in Czechoslovakia (which was a non-violent revolution that tried to overthrow the Communist government) and the fall of the Ceausescu government in Romania. (Ceausescu was the communist dictator of Romania until a revolution and coup took him out of power). Since the end of the 1970's until recently, he has worked in the Middle East in mainly war affected countries. Some of these countries include Lebonon, Israel, and Iraq. He spent three of these years living in the countries of Former Yugoslavia, between Vukovar and Sarajevo. He was critically injured in Sarajevo by a Kalashnikov salvo (an assault rifle). Some other countries that he lived and worked in were Iran, Haiti, Congo, Burundi, and Algeria.
In 1994, the year of the Rwandan massacre, Hatzfeld went to Rwanda to find information and give a report on what had happened there and the aftermath. He originally went to Rwanda for Liberation magazine, but he ended up writing many different articles and several books on this country and its tragedies and triumphs. Eventually he gave up daily journalism and focused on researching the genocide that took place there. His books on the Rwandan genocide have won many awards (including Prix Culture 2000, Prix Pierre Mille, Prix France Culture, Prix Femina, and the Prix Jossef Kessel) and he has sold thousands of copies to curious and intrigued readers.
I greatly respect Jean Hatzfeld because he has done what many people are afraid to do. He has had the strength, courage, and curiosity to find the suppressed truth in these suppressed countries. By sharing people's stories, he has helped impact the world. The stories that he has helped give to the world (he is essentially the "middle man") have and will continue to influence and educate other. I know that his writing has influenced my desires. I wish to see these places that he describes in his novels, so I can truly see and genuinely try to feel what the Rwandan people went through. I think Hatzfeld's life and works of literature are fascinating.
Hatzfeld's personal life is related to many of the Rwandan people. His Jewish parents had to flee the wrath of the Nazis and moved to Madagascar (just like many of the Tutsies had to flee from the Hutus). This is where Hatzfeld was born, but he and his family eventually moved back to their hometown in the Auvergne region. The Rwandan people and the genocide they suffered in 1994 has greatly influenced Hatzfeld's life. He currently spends his time between Rwanda and Paris. He spends most of his time writing and documenting about the people of Rwanda and their situation.
Sources:
http://www.lettre-ulysses-award.org/authors04/hatzfeld.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Solidarityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velvet_revolution
Monday, October 6, 2008
Rwanda
FACTS FROM THE CIA WORLD FACTBOOK
Location:Central Africa, east of the Democratic Republic of Congo
Location:Central Africa, east of the Democratic Republic of Congo
Area:roughly the size of Maryland
Climate: two rainy seasons and mild in the mountains with possible frost or snow (generally warm in most parts)
Terrain: mostly grassy uplands and hills with mountains in the northwest
Natural Resources: gold, tin ore, tungsten ore, methane, hydropower, fertile land (used for farming)
Natural Hazards: occassional droughts, volcanic mountains in the Virunga mountain range
Population: 10, 186, 063
Median Age: 18.7
People living with HIV/AIDS: 250, 000
Ethnic groups: Hutu (Bantu) 84%, Tutsi (Hamitic) 15%, Twa (Pygmy) 1%
Religions: Roman Catholic 56.5%, Protestant 26%, Adventist 11.1%, Muslim 4.6%, indigenous beliefs 0.1%, none 1.7%
*Rwanda is the most densely populated country in Africa
Old Flag (previous to the genocide)
Population: 10, 186, 063
Median Age: 18.7
People living with HIV/AIDS: 250, 000
Ethnic groups: Hutu (Bantu) 84%, Tutsi (Hamitic) 15%, Twa (Pygmy) 1%
Religions: Roman Catholic 56.5%, Protestant 26%, Adventist 11.1%, Muslim 4.6%, indigenous beliefs 0.1%, none 1.7%
*Rwanda is the most densely populated country in Africa
Old Flag (previous to the genocide)
Meaning of the old Rwandan flag:
Red stripe- symbolized the people
Yellow stripe- symbolized the nation's hope for future development
Green stripe- symbolized peace
"R"- distinguished Rwandan flag from the flag of New Guinea which is identical except for the letter in the middle
Current Flag (after the genocide)
Meaning of the current Rwandan flag:
Blue stripe-symbolizes joy and peace
Yellow stripe-symbolizes Rwanda's mineral wealth and development in the economic field
Green stripe-symbolizes Rwanda's prosperity and natural resources
Sun-radiates 24 rays that symbolize enlightenment
-This flag was accepted in 2001 because the old flag was done away with after the 1994 genocide
Sources: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rw.html
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_Rwanda_1962.svg/450px-Flag_Rwanda_1962.svg.png
http://www.mapsofworld.com/rwanda/flag.html
Friday, October 3, 2008
The Role of Belgian Colonization
After WWI, the Treaty of Versailles was signed and it affected Germany in many ways. One way was the colony of Rwanda-Urundi was taken away from Germany and made a League of Nations protectorate that was put under Belgian rule. The Belgians reinforced the class system that the Germans had imposed, further separating the Tutsies and the Hutus. The Belgians favored the Tutsies (even though they only made up 14% of Rwanda, whereas the Hutus made up 85% of the country. The Tutsies were given many privileges that the Hutu were not fortunate enough to receive, including western-style education and political power. The Belgians used the Tutsi to rule the country, having these people enforce what the Belgians believed and what the Belgians wanted done. Therefore the Tutsies were essentially puppets and the Belgians were the puppet masters. The Belgians insisted that Rwanda start to grow coffee, the corvee was introduced (this is form of labor in which each worker is whipped eight times before work each morning). The onerous corvee was not popular and many people fled to Uganda. I would have left Rwanda if I was a slave because being beaten before I started my day would make me not want to work and it would enrage me everyday. The Belgians began to focus more and more on race and they did studies that proved, in there eyes, that the Tutsies were superior. Scientists were brought into the country to measure skulls sizes (to see which group of people had a bigger skull and therefore a bigger brain-now we know that brain size is irrelevant to intelligence). Tutsies were also taller and lighter skinned so the Belgians believed they were of Caucasian decent, therefore making them "better" than the Hutus. Racial identification cards were also distributed which identified if the citizens of Rwanda were Hutu or Tutsi.
As time went on, the idea that the Tutsies were superior to the Hutu became so ingrained in the minds of the Tutsies that they started to believe this idea and exploited their power over the Hutu. Resentment, anger, and confusion flooded the hearts and minds of the Hutu. These emotions started to build up over time and as the people entered the 1990's, these emotions were about to explode.
(Picture: The country of Belgium is highlighted but you can also see Germany, the former colonial power in Rwanda, to the right).
Sources:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/rwanda/etc /cron.html
http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ad24
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Rwanda
http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/images/europe/belgium.jpg
As time went on, the idea that the Tutsies were superior to the Hutu became so ingrained in the minds of the Tutsies that they started to believe this idea and exploited their power over the Hutu. Resentment, anger, and confusion flooded the hearts and minds of the Hutu. These emotions started to build up over time and as the people entered the 1990's, these emotions were about to explode.
(Picture: The country of Belgium is highlighted but you can also see Germany, the former colonial power in Rwanda, to the right).
Sources:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/rwanda/etc /cron.html
http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ad24
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Rwanda
http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/images/europe/belgium.jpg
The Role of German Colonization
Colonization played a significant role in the social harmony in Rwanda. Before being colonized, the Tutsi and Hutu lived together peacefully and with a negligible amount of resentment (some words and phrases suggest that there may have been a small amount of tension between the groups but there is no other evidence of friction). However, when the Rwanda and Great Lakes region (see map) was separated in the Berlin Conference in 1890, the st
art of the disintegration of the peace began. The colony borders were established in 1900, there was a ten year delay because poor maps made it difficult to find the boundaries of each country. The Germanic Empire ended up holding Rwanda and smaller kingdoms on the shore of Lake Victoria. In 1897, German missionaries and colonists moved to Rwanda. This country was very submissive and heavily influenced by the Germans. At this time, race was being emphasized and studied in Europe. In Rwanda, the Germans believed that the Tutsi were of a superior race because they were taller, had more "eloquent" personalities, many readily converted to Roman Catholicism, and their people originally came from the Horn of Africa (which was considered "more European" than the origination sites of the Hutus). This separation, that is simply based on ideas with a moral and logical foundation that is nonexistent, is the root of the problem in Rwanda. The Germans created a system similar to feudalism and put the Tutsi in charge of the farming Hutus. Eventually this rule would evolve into the ruling of the whole country. Before the Germans came in, the Hutu held a significant amount of power in the ruling class, but the Germans replaced all of the ruling Hutus with Tutsi rulers. After WWI, the Germans had the colony taken away, but the changes and damage they left behind were irreparable.
art of the disintegration of the peace began. The colony borders were established in 1900, there was a ten year delay because poor maps made it difficult to find the boundaries of each country. The Germanic Empire ended up holding Rwanda and smaller kingdoms on the shore of Lake Victoria. In 1897, German missionaries and colonists moved to Rwanda. This country was very submissive and heavily influenced by the Germans. At this time, race was being emphasized and studied in Europe. In Rwanda, the Germans believed that the Tutsi were of a superior race because they were taller, had more "eloquent" personalities, many readily converted to Roman Catholicism, and their people originally came from the Horn of Africa (which was considered "more European" than the origination sites of the Hutus). This separation, that is simply based on ideas with a moral and logical foundation that is nonexistent, is the root of the problem in Rwanda. The Germans created a system similar to feudalism and put the Tutsi in charge of the farming Hutus. Eventually this rule would evolve into the ruling of the whole country. Before the Germans came in, the Hutu held a significant amount of power in the ruling class, but the Germans replaced all of the ruling Hutus with Tutsi rulers. After WWI, the Germans had the colony taken away, but the changes and damage they left behind were irreparable. 
Hutu Information
(Picture: Hutu compound) The Hutu people represent 90 percent of the population in Rwanda and about 85 percent of the population in Burundi. There are 12-13 million Hutu people in both countries combined and they have many things in common with the two other main groups in these countries, the Tutsi and Twa. One of the chief similarities is that the majority of the people in all three groups speak different dialects of the same Bantu language. Just like the Tutsi, the Hutus speak Kinyarwanda in Rwanda and Kirundi in Burundi. Many Hutus speak French and have French first names, and often times they have names that are long but mean a phrase. (For example, Mutaramibirwa means "the one who never gets tired.")
The Hutu have the same religions as the Tutsi. (Christian and other traditional beliefs). They also celebrate the same holidays. Relationships are also very similar; they are valued and both groups have different greetings for morning, afternoon, and evening. It is also common for young people to date and hang out in large groups (rather than couple dating). All of these similarities are surprising to me because the genocide against the Tutsi was so great but the Tutsi and the Hutu have practically the exact same culture. They have lived together for centuries and their peoples are intertwined. How could you try to exterminate or "ethnically cleanse" your country of the people that share your same values, culture, religion, language, and much more? This baffles me.
Before the Tutsi people invaded Rwanda in the 14th or 15th century, the Hutu were clan based and all the power was held by clan kings called bahinza. Social relationships were changed after European rule; both countries were colonies between 1890 and 1962. Both the Germans (ruling from 1890-1918) and the Belgians who followed Germans favored the Tutsi people and considered the Tutsies to be of superior race to the Hutu (even though the Tutsi were the minority). This caused angry and resentment in the hearts of many Hutus and caused many problems along the road of history.
Before the Tutsi people invaded Rwanda in the 14th or 15th century, the Hutu were clan based and all the power was held by clan kings called bahinza. Social relationships were changed after European rule; both countries were colonies between 1890 and 1962. Both the Germans (ruling from 1890-1918) and the Belgians who followed Germans favored the Tutsi people and considered the Tutsies to be of superior race to the Hutu (even though the Tutsi were the minority). This caused angry and resentment in the hearts of many Hutus and caused many problems along the road of history.
Sources:
http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Rwanda-to-Syria/Hutu.html
http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/oldworld/africa/hutu.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Rwanda
http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/oldworld/africa/hutu.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Rwanda
Wednesday, October 1, 2008
Tutsi Information
The Tutsi (pronounced TOOT-se) were the people targeted in the Rwanda genocide. There are approximately 2-3 million estimated Tutsies and the majority of them live in Rwanda, Burundi, or the northeastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Their primary languages are Kinyarwanda and Kirundi. These two languages are different dialects of each other, so they are extremely similar. Kinyarwanda is spoken in Rwanda and Kirundi is spoken in Burundi. This language is similar to other Bantu languages because they both use nouns with prefixes (so each part of the word means a different thing and when you put the whole word together you have a phrase). Many of them also speak English and French. They speak French because it was the language of the Belgians who had ruled them many years ago. French is used in schools and it is common for Tutsi people to have a French first name. Many Tutsies who have been refugees in Uganda (which is common) learn English during their time there.
The Tutsi people have been influenced by Christian missionaries over time, and therefore their main religion is Christianity (mainly Roman Catholic and Protestant) combined with their traditional beliefs. One tradition belief is the belief in Imaana, which is "the distant creator" and he can grant fertility and wealth. It is believed that the king shares these same powers. The people communicate with Imaana through the spirits of dead relatives, called abazima. The holidays that are celebrated by the Tutsi correlate to the Christian religion, including Christmas and Easter. National holidays are also observed, including Independence Day, May Day, and New Year's Day. Traditional celebrations included dancing, sacred drumming, and costumes. However, holidays that involved these rituals are no longer celebrated.
The traditional occupation of the Tutsi people is cattle herding and farming. Cattle is their symbol of wealth.
Social status is a central part of Tutsi's lives. It affects their posture, body movements, and way of speaking. People in lower class are allowed to show their emotions, but the people of the upper class must act in a more dignified manner and not express their feelings. Currently, Tutsi people may choose who they want to marry (in the past this was not allowed). However, when the genocide started in Rwanda, there were many mixed families of Tutsi and Hutu and therefore many people had to make a choice of whether to stay behind with their Hutu family or runaway to save their lives.
The Tutsi people have been influenced by Christian missionaries over time, and therefore their main religion is Christianity (mainly Roman Catholic and Protestant) combined with their traditional beliefs. One tradition belief is the belief in Imaana, which is "the distant creator" and he can grant fertility and wealth. It is believed that the king shares these same powers. The people communicate with Imaana through the spirits of dead relatives, called abazima. The holidays that are celebrated by the Tutsi correlate to the Christian religion, including Christmas and Easter. National holidays are also observed, including Independence Day, May Day, and New Year's Day. Traditional celebrations included dancing, sacred drumming, and costumes. However, holidays that involved these rituals are no longer celebrated.
The traditional occupation of the Tutsi people is cattle herding and farming. Cattle is their symbol of wealth.
Social status is a central part of Tutsi's lives. It affects their posture, body movements, and way of speaking. People in lower class are allowed to show their emotions, but the people of the upper class must act in a more dignified manner and not express their feelings. Currently, Tutsi people may choose who they want to marry (in the past this was not allowed). However, when the genocide started in Rwanda, there were many mixed families of Tutsi and Hutu and therefore many people had to make a choice of whether to stay behind with their Hutu family or runaway to save their lives.
(Picture: a group of Tutsi men)
Sources:
http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Brazil-to-Congo-Republic-of/Tutsi.html
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761580656/tutsi.html http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0032229.html http://www.africarte.it/foto-storiche/Tutsi.JPG
Tuesday, September 30, 2008
Background Information; Hutu and Tutsies
Around 600 years ago, the Tutsi people migrated from Ethiopia into Rwanda, which was the homeland of the Hutu people. For many years, the Tutsi and the Hutu lived peacefully together. The Tutsi were mostly herders and most of the power was given to them as well. The majority of Hutu were croppers. Although these people were separated into two groups, they still intermarried, worked together, spoke the same language, and obeyed the Tutsi king. The separation of Hutu and Tutsi was not decided ethnically. It was decided economically, and there was social mobility, people could move from being a Tutsi (high economic status) to being a Hutu (low economic status). The majority of the people in Rwand
a were Hutu. Whenever people from another country would move to Rwanda, the Tutsi would not bother identifying their race or ethnicity, they would simply label them as Hutus. At that time, as mentioned above, this label was not permanent. Therefore, the Hutus were an indigenous group that was growing rapidly but was not given a significant amount of power. The Tutsies, who were the minority, held most of the influential positions in Rwanda. The segregation of the two groups did not cause problems initially, but resentment and anger soon came into play. 
a were Hutu. Whenever people from another country would move to Rwanda, the Tutsi would not bother identifying their race or ethnicity, they would simply label them as Hutus. At that time, as mentioned above, this label was not permanent. Therefore, the Hutus were an indigenous group that was growing rapidly but was not given a significant amount of power. The Tutsies, who were the minority, held most of the influential positions in Rwanda. The segregation of the two groups did not cause problems initially, but resentment and anger soon came into play. 
(Above: Tutsi men in traditional costume performing a dance; Below: Hutu girl doing chores)
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